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Genetic Turning Points
(The Ethics of Human Genetic Intervention)
James C. Peterson, Eerdmans,
2001, 364p
Review by Ray Hoekzema
In view of the current debate about the ethics of genetic intervention this book is a ‘must’ on every pastor’s shelf. Although quite a volume to read it is the only A-Z book, and that from a Christian perspective as well, that will help you think through the ethical challenges of human genetic intervention, an expanding technology that offers new choices and demands decisions. The book has a mass of information but the author presents the issues in a fair and manageable form. Although it would be helpful to read the book from the beginning in the presented order, it can be accessed at any point with supporting cross-references. After providing an expanded context, Peterson goes on to address the issue in four parts i.e. genetic research (searching for genes); genetic testing; genetic drugs (adding gene products to the human body); and genetic surgery (changing genes in the human body). In each case he covers the subject in terms of its effects on the individual, on the family, and on the community.
What began with Mendel
It was the Augustinian monk,
Gregor Mendel (1822-84), experimenting with pea plants, who first
recognised the units of inheritance that we now call genes. Genes
provide both physical structure and operating instructions but human
beings develop in a complex interaction that includes far more than just
genes. Though genetic heritage is influential, it is not determinative.
That is why it is not possible to clone an individual’s personality.
Only a person’s genes could be cloned. The resulting body would be a
younger twin and have much in common with the older sibling but would
still develop as a unique person. Our genes may also be formative for
some temperamental inclinations, but unlike ants, genetic tendency does
not have to be obeyed. Worker ants are born with an instinct, genetic
instructions to behave one certain way, they are rote and unchangeable.
It will be rather obvious that humility is called for. In most human
endeavours the more we actually do learn, the more we become aware of
what we do not know. That is certainly the case in regard to human
genetics. One example is the three billion base pairs of DNA in each of
the cells that go to make up the human body, which could uncoil and
stretch out to about two metres in a straight line, evokes respect for
the human being as a marvel of vast intricacy. For one who is convinced
of the truth of the Christian tradition, which has always taught that
God is the Creator of all, unending praise would also be due to the
Designer.
Keeping God central
The purpose of the technology from
a Christian perspective is to sustain, restore and improve life. The
classic Christian perspective begins by recognising God as the source of
all that is, the reason we and the universe continue, and the only
worthy point to which life can lead. Every human being can only be at
peace if God is welcomed. Community with God is to be extended to fellow
human beings. “Love your neighbour as yourself” is best fulfilled when
it is reciprocated in mutual care and enjoyment of each other as we live
in the world which God has created, a material universe just made for
us.
When power and creativity are motivated by pride, harmful actions are
likely to follow. Jesus is our model in at least three ways. Firstly,
what Jesus values, God values. Secondly, Jesus is a perfect human being,
in Him we can see what humanity is meant to be. Furthermore, Jesus
Christ leads the Church, His body. How Jesus treated the physical world
is a model for His people now. The physical world is not ultimate, but
it is valued as foundational to human existence. We are to sustain our
physical bodies, restore our bodies when they are damaged and we should
improve them as we can serve God and our neighbour better. When it comes
to side-effects of human disease, i.e. suffering, the author says that
it is a direct result of God ‘s sovereignly choosing to give His
creatures space to make genuine choices. And the most prominent response
to suffering in the scriptural tradition is to trust in God’s character.
God knows what He is doing and that is enough.
Moral issues
When it comes to genetic drugs,
i.e. adding gene products to the body, it has already served many
diabetics in the case of Humulin. With the discovery of the genetic code
for human insulin, it became possible to place those instructions in
single-cell bacteria which then follows the genetic instructions and
churns out human insulin. Even though genetics is only part of physical
health, it can make a difference. But intervention should only proceed
when the intervention is safe or the risk at a minimum; should achieve
genuine improvement and promote an open future, not a predestined one;
and finally when it is the best available use of always limited
resources.
Genetic surgery is a much more recent concept with much said about
changing a person’s genes, transfer, removal, inactivation or
duplication (such as cloning). In terms of concern, the degree generally
increases with the degree of invasiveness, particularly in any departure
from the way human beings now come to be. The first apparent cure by
surgery was announced only in April 2000 when two babies afflicted with
SICD-X1 disease (Severe Combined Immuno Deficiency) had genetic material
inserted into marrow cells, which then multiplied and displaced cells
with the defective gene. Peterson says genetic surgery could compare to
transplantation surgery the way polio vaccine does to the iron lung.
We do need to get a perspective on that and note what others are saying.
Gilbert Meilaender says: “What we beget is like ourselves. What we make
is not; it is the product of our free decision, and its destiny is ours
to determine... it is , in fact, human begetting that expresses our
equal dignity, we should not lightly set it aside.” Leon Kass says:
“Genetic intervention is “a giant step toward turning begetting into
making, procreation into manufacture, making man himself simply another
one of the man-made things... As with any other product of our making,
no matter how excellent, the artificer stands above it, not as an equal
but as a superior, transcending it by his will and creative prowess...
human children would be their artefacts.”
Peterson, in dealing with types of intervention, further distinguishes
between somatic cell intervention which involves one recipient; and
intervention in the germline which is inheritable. Many philosophers and
theologians describe somatic cell therapy as acceptable but argue
against germline intervention. The author says that more people are
involved in germline intervention, the stakes are higher but the
procedure should not be done even for the first patient until its
success and safety are substantially assured. Once it is clear that the
procedure is helpful, provision for descendants is an advantage.
The future?
The author in rhetorically asking
the question: “What direction? He suggests that four characteristics of
the human being that are widely affirmed could serve as structure for a
response. We are finite, fallible, self-concerned, and diverse. We are
finite in as much as we do not have access to all information nor could
we comprehend it if we did. Fallible, again if all information were
available, we would still make mistakes in understanding and judgment.
With respect to being self-concerned, this is seen as a corollary of
sin; and diverse i.e. degree of variation in values and weight given to
each value from one person or group to another. Paul Ramsey, an
ethicist, warns that mankind has not evidenced much wisdom in the
control and redirection of his environment.
Peterson says that genes shape us powerfully. By use we build physical
patterns of memory and response into our brains, which are then
manifested as our character. The physical side of who we are is deeply
interrelated with all that we are but it is not our ultimate concern,
but we should care about it because it is part of our God-given
character, place, and stewardship. As creative creatures made in God’s
image, called to be like Christ, and motivated by love for God and one
another, we are to carry on the God-given pattern of creation,
redemption, and transformation in our physical world. That includes the
larger environment and our bodies, to sustain, restore and improve our
bodies to better serve God and our neighbours.
Even if genetic intervention is perfected and widely implemented, there
will be limits to what it can physically accomplish. Genetics pursued as
an end in itself is at best a distraction, and when all consuming, an
idolatry. Genetics can free and empower us in some ways, but we need to
ask the question: “For what?” Frittering away years of hard-won growth
and insight on self-entertainment misses the point. Freedom from disease
and increase in capacity so that we can better worship, care, serve,
discover, live, is the point.
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